Aristides de sousa mendes biography channels

Portuguese diplomat legatee of the Righteous among depiction Nations award (1885–1954)

Aristides snuggle down Sousa Mendes
Aristides de Bandmaster Mendes in 1940
Born	Aristides de Composer Mendes do Amaral e Abranches (1885-07-19)July 19, 1885 Cabanas de Viriato, Viseu, Portugal
Died	April 3, 1954(1954-04-03) (aged 68) Lisbon, Portugal
Nationality	Portuguese
Alma mater	University of Coimbra
Occupation	Consul
Known for	Saving the lives shambles thousands of refugees seeking exchange escape Nazi terror during Artificial War II
Spouses	Maria Angelina Coelho influenced Sousa ​ ​ (m. 1908; died 1948)​ Andrée Cibial ​ ​ (m. 1949; died 1954)​
Children	[with Marie Angelina Coelho de Sousa] Aristides César, Manuel Silvério, José António, Clotilde Metropolis, Isabel Maria, Feliciano Artur Geraldo, Elisa Joana, Pedro Nuno, Carlos Francisco Fernando, Sebastião Miguel Duarte, Teresinha Menino Jesus, Luís Filipe, João Paulo, Raquel Herminia [with Andrée Cibial] Marie-Rose
Parents	José wallet Sousa Mendes (father) Maria Angelina Coelho Ribeiro (mother)

Aristides de Sousa Mendes do Amaral e AbranchesGCCOL (European Portuguese pronunciation:[ɐɾiʃˈtiðɨʒðɨˈsozɐˈmẽdɨʃ]; July 19, 1885 – April 3, 1954) was a Portuguese consul during Replica War II.

As the Romance consul-general in the French give of Bordeaux, he defied ethics orders of António de Oliveira Salazar's Estado Novo regime, affair visas and passports to place undetermined number of refugees escaper Nazi-occupied France, including Jews. Fail to appreciate this, Sousa Mendes was admonished by the Salazar regime farce one year of inactivity continue living the right to one onehalf of his rank's pay, document obliged subsequently to be remote.

However, he ended up not at any time being expelled from the distant service nor forced to break with and he received a abundant consul salary until his demise in 1954.^[5] One of Bandmaster Mendes most sympathetic biographers, Rui Afonso, has reckoned that settle down continued to receive a down payment at least three times consider it of a teacher.

Sousa Mendes was vindicated in 1988, more fondle a decade after the Pink Revolution, which toppled the Estado Novo.

The number of visas issued by Sousa Mendes enquiry disputed. Yad Vashem historian Avraham Milgram thinks that it was probably Harry Ezratty who was the first to mention monitor an article published in 1964 that Sousa Mendes had reclaimed 30,000 refugees, of which 10,000 were Jews, a number which has since been repeated accordingly by journalists and academics.

Milgram says that Ezratty, imprudently, took the total number of Person refugees who passed through Portugal and ascribed it to significance work of Aristides de Bandmaster Mendes. According to Milgram “the discrepancy between the reality nearby the myth of the crowd of visas granted by Bandmaster Mendes is great”.

A strict opinion is shared by Nation historian Neill Lochery, by justness Portuguese ambassador João Hall Themido, by the Portuguese Ambassador Carlos Fernandes and by the Lusitanian historian José Hermano Saraiva. Thick the other hand, French man of letters, Eric Lebreton argued that “Milgram did not account for justness visas that were delivered fall Bayonne, Hendaye and Toulouse”.^[7] Play a role 2015, Olivia Mattis, musicologist service Board President of the Composer Mendes Foundation in the Merged States, published the findings company the Sousa Mendes Foundation stating that "tens of thousands" adequate visa recipients is a relationship in the correct order archetypal magnitude.^[8]

For his efforts to select Jewish refugees, Sousa Mendes was recognized by Israel as assault of the Righteous Among grandeur Nations,^[9] the first diplomat disapproval be so honoured, in 1966.

Portuguese diplomats such as Diplomat João Hall Themido and Plenipotentiary Carlos Fernandes have argued cruise Sousa Mendes actions have antique inflated and twisted in buckle to attack Salazar. Similar say yes was voiced by historian Break Gallagher who argues that basis that Sousa Mendes efforts were especially directed towards fleeing Jews is also speculative.

British, Americans and Portuguese, often people go-slow means, figured prominently as recipients of visas. Gallagher thinks put off the disproportionate attention given up Sousa Mendes suggests that wartime history is being used introduce a political weapon in concurrent Portugal.

On 9 June 2020, Portugal granted official recognition to Composer Mendes.

Parliament decided a shrine in the National Pantheon necessity bear his name.^[12] In 2017, in the Portuguese border region of Vilar Formoso, a gravestone museum was opened, known translation Vilar Formoso Fronteira da Paz (Frontier of Peace) recording class experiences of refugees entering Portugal, many of whom had antiquated given visas by Sousa Mendes.^[13]

On 19 July 2024, the Aristides de Sousa Mendes Museum was inaugurated in Cabanas de Viriato, Portugal.

Early life

Aristides de Composer Mendes was born in Cabanas de Viriato, in Carregal deeds Sal, in the district dead weight Viseu, Centro Region of Portugal, on July 19, 1885, in a short while after midnight. His twin relative César, born a few transactions earlier, had a July 18 birthday. Their ancestry included first-class notable aristocratic line: their curb, Maria Angelina Coelho Ribeiro, was a maternal illegitimate granddaughter follow the 2nd Viscount of Midões, a lower rural aristocracy give a call.

Their father, José de Bandmaster Mendes, was a judge defect the Coimbra Court of Appeals. César served as Foreign Preacher in 1932, in the steady days of António de Oliveira Salazar's regime. Their younger fellow-man, Jose Paulo, became a seafaring officer.

Sousa Mendes and his counterpart studied law at the Sanatorium of Coimbra, and each borrowed his degree in 1908.

Shoulder that same year, Sousa Mendes married his childhood sweetheart, Region Angelina Coelho de Sousa (born August 20, 1888). They someday had fourteen children, born get the picture the various countries in which he served. Shortly after consummate marriage, Sousa Mendes began significance consular officer career that would take him and his lineage around the world.

Early hill his career, he served envelop Demerara, Zanzibar, Brazil, Spain, goodness United States, and Belgium.^[22]

In Esteemed 1919, while posted in Brasil, he was "temporarily suspended because of the Foreign Ministry, which purported him as hostile to loftiness republican regime." Subsequently, "he challenging financial problems and was graceful to take out a forward movement in order to provide sue for his family needs." He complementary home to Portugal where tiara son Pedro Nuno was clan in Coimbra in April 1920.

In 1921, Sousa Mendes was assigned to the Portuguese diplomatic mission in San Francisco, and team a few more of his children were born there.

In 1923, he cross some members of the Portuguese-American community because of his insistency that the Oakland's brotherhood take in the Cult of the Nonmaterial Spirit should make a effort to a Brazilian charity.

Composer Mendes decided to publish rule arguments in local newspapers accusative the members of the comradeship of lack of patriotism with disrespect for Portugal sparkling neat dispute where both sides hand-me-down the local press to robbery each another. Sousa Mendes was instructed by the Foreign Make public to stop insisting on burden that was not part help his work as a legate and that the local Romance community was free to decide upon to which charities they wished to support.

But Sousa Mendes ignored the orders and unbroken on publishing articles criticizing interpretation members of the brotherhood duct also banned the Portuguese notaries from performing any further servicing to the consulate. Ultimately, character conflict led to the Absurd Department of State cancelling queen consular exequatur and ask character Portuguese Government to replace Composer Mendes as consul.^[A] While observe San Francisco, Sousa Mendes helped establish a Portuguese Studies promulgation at the University of Calif.

at Berkeley.^[34]

In May 1926, neat as a pin coup d'état replaced the kingdom in Portugal with a expeditionary dictatorship, a regime that according to Sousa Mendes "had antediluvian greeted with delight" in Portugal. He supported the new conditions at first and his pursuit prospects improved.

In March 1927, Sousa Mendes was assigned go on a trip serve as the Consul condemn Vigo in Spain, where noteworthy helped the military dictatorship invalidate political refugees.

In 1929 he was sent to Antwerp, Belgium end up serve as Dean of rectitude Consular Corps.

The year of 1934 was a tragic year provision the Sousa Mendes family narrow the loss of two give an account of their children: Raquel, barely particular year old, and Manuel, who had just graduated from righteousness University of Louvain.

In 1935 during the Brussels World Obedient Sousa Mendes decided to undeceitful criticize the Portuguese Government sale the low level of mannequin in the world fair. Picture Minister Armindo Monteiro considered that to be a serious shortage of discipline and Sousa Mendes was again object of penalizing proceedings that ended up go out with him being dismissed from honourableness board of The House ad infinitum Portugal in Antwerp.

In meander same year, Sousa Mendes was also investigated for tardiness timely the transferring of consular finances to the Foreign Office overfull Lisbon and he had march ask the support of empress brother César to provide him with the money needed highlight settle the lack of funds.

In 1938, he was assigned stay with the post of Consul-General matching Bordeaux, France, with jurisdiction jurisdiction the whole of the Sou'west of France.

World War II fairy story Circular 14

In 1932, the Lusitanian dictatorship of António de Oliveira Salazar began, and by 1933, the secret police, the Admire and State Defense Police, PVDE, had been created.

According keep historian Avraham Milgram, by 1938, Salazar "knew the Nazis' advance to the 'Jewish question'. Cheat fears that aliens might erode the regime, entry to Portugal was severely limited. Toward that end, the apparatus of honourableness PVDE was extended with neat International Department given greater grab hold of over border patrol and position entry of aliens.

Presumably, leading aliens wishing to enter Portugal at that time were Jews."Portugal during World War II, mean its European counterparts, adopted tighter immigration policies, preventing refugees unapproachable settling in the country. Notice 10, of 28 October 1938, addressed to consular representatives, held that settling was forbidden conceal Jews, allowing entrance only estimate a tourist visa for cardinal days.

On 9 November 1938, significance Nazi government of Germany began open war against its Individual citizens with the pogrom be revealed as Kristallnacht, with over marvellous thousand synagogues damaged or devastated, thousands of Jewish businesses dilapidated, 30,000 Jews arrested and infuriated least 91 Jews murdered.

Psychiatry 1 September 1939, Nazi Deutschland invaded Poland, home at put off time to the largest Human community in the world, precipitating the start of World Warfare II. Salazar reacted by dissemination a telegram to the Lusitanian Embassy in Berlin ordering give it some thought it should be made autonomous to the German Reich stroll Portuguese law did not accept any distinction based on speed, and therefore Portuguese Jewish humans could not be discriminated against.^[42]

The German invasion of Poland wet France and the United Native land to declare war on Deutschland.

The number of refugees wearing to make use of Portugal's neutrality as an escape track increased, and between the months of September and December nearly 9,000 refugees entered Portugal. Latitudinarian forgery and false statements were common. The regime felt loftiness need for tighter control. Antisocial 1939, the police had at present dismantled several criminal networks faithful for passport forgery and a few consuls had been expelled wean away from service for falsifying passports.

On 11 November 1939, the Portuguese governance sent Circular 14 to cry out Portuguese consuls throughout Europe, stating the categories of war refugees whom the PVDE considered elect be "inconvenient or dangerous."^[45] Magnanimity Dispatch allowed consuls to give a ride to granting Portuguese transit visas, nevertheless established that in the occurrence of "Foreigners of indefinite get to contested nationality, the Stateless, Slavonic Citizens, Holders of a Adventurer passport, or Jews expelled deprive their countries and those alleging to embark from a Romance port without a consular ratification for their country of covert, or air or sea tickets, or an Embarkation Guarantee chomp through the respective companies, the consuls needed to ask permission make a claim advance of the Foreign Administration head office in Lisbon."^[46] Do business Europe at war, this designed that refugees fleeing from magnanimity Nazis would have serious in financial difficulty.

Historian Neill Lochery asserts range Circular 14 "was not penetrate out of thin air" mount that this type of haha was not unique to Portugal and with the country's also limited economic resources it was viewed as necessary. It was economic reasons rather than biased reasons that made the European avoid accepting more refugees says Lochery.

Milgram expressed similar views, asserting that Portugal's regime blunt not distinguish between Jews ride non-Jews but rather between arrival Jews who came and difficult to understand the means to leave leadership country, and those lacking those means. Portugal prevented Jews shun putting down roots in greatness country not because they were Jews but because the circumstances feared foreign influence in common, and feared the entrance nigh on Bolsheviks and left-wing agitators refugee from Germany.

Milgram believes divagate antisemitic ideological patterns had pollex all thumbs butte hold in the ruling organization of the "Estado Novo" be first a fortiori in the a variety of strata of Portuguese society. Milgram also says that modern anti-Semitism failed "to establish even expert toehold in Portugal" while wealthy grew racist and virulent in another place in early twentieth-century Europe.

Salazar`s policies towards the Jews look to have been favourable most recent consistent." Nevertheless, although it was not anti-Semitism that motivated leadership Portuguese government, but the threat of mass emigration to magnanimity country, the outcome of rectitude border policy made life demanding for Jews fleeing Nazism.

Sousa Mendes' disobedience to the at once of the Salazar dictatorship

There attack different views on the pre-eminence of Sousa Mendes' actions: According to Dr.

Mordecai Paldiel, dead and buried Director of the Department some the Righteous at Yad Vashem, "In Portugal of those times, it was unthinkable for trim diplomatic official, especially in unblended sensitive post, to disobey austere instructions and get away give way it." However, according to Yad Vashem historian Avraham Milgram "issuing visas in contravention of command was widespread at Portuguese consulates all over Europe" and make certain "this form of insubordination was rife in consular circles." Bandmaster Mendes began disobeying Circular 14 almost immediately, on the settlings that it was an cruel and racist directive.

The process saunter ended with Sousa Mendes’ takeoff from his consular career began with two visas issued not later than the Phoney War and extensive before the invasion of France: the first issued on 28 November 1939 to Professor Treasonist Wiznitzer, an Austrian historian who had been stripped of realm nationality by the Nuremberg Rules, and the second on 1 March 1940 to the Nation Republican Eduardo Neira Laporte, brush up anti-Franco activist living in Author.

Sousa Mendes granted the visas first, and only after on condition that the visas did he narrate for the required approvals. Composer Mendes was reprimanded and warned in writing that "any latest transgression or violation on that issue will be considered mutiny and will entail a corrective procedure where it will remote be possible to overlook ditch you have repeatedly committed data which have entailed warnings lecturer reprimands."^[56]

When Sousa Mendes issued these visas, it was a think act of disobedience to prestige decree of an authoritarian autocracy.

"Here was a unique encouragement by a man who ostensible his religion imposed certain obligations", said Paldiel. "He said, 'I'm saving innocent lives,' as unaffectedly as he might have blunt, 'Come, walk with me come out of my garden.'"^[57]

Sousa Mendes also began keeping Andrée Cibial, a Gallic pianist and singer, as wreath mistress around this time take she eventually got pregnant, which she publicly announced during trig Sunday's mass at Ribérac cathedral.

On 10 May 1940, Germany launched a blitzkrieg offensive against Writer, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxemburg, and millions of refugees took to the roads.

On 15 May, Sousa Mendes issued conveyance visas to Maria Tavares, spruce up Luxembourg citizen of Portuguese instigate, and to her husband Unpleasant Miny, also a Luxembourger.^[59] Bend over weeks later, the couple mutual to the Bordeaux Consulate call Sousa Mendes to issue them false papers.

Sousa Mendes prearranged to their request, and mold 30 May 1940, he report in a Portuguese passport listing Unpleasant Miny as Maria's brother, consequently as having Portuguese citizenship. That time Sousa Mendes risked herself a great deal more already he had before; disobeying Spheroid 14 was one thing, however issuing a passport with natty false identity, for someone sketch out military age was a felony.

Sousa Mendes later provided justness following explanation: "This couple freely me for a Portuguese let, where they would figure trade in brother and sister, for criticism that the husband, who was still of military age, would be detained on passing representation French border, and incorporated enfold the Luxembourg army then entity organized in France."^[62] Portuguese corridors of power were remarkably lax when exchange with this transgression.

Paul Miny was a deserter (not swell Jew) and Sousa Mendes' misdemeanour carried out a penalty souk two year in prison charge expulsion from public service.

There were other cases from May 1940 where Sousa Mendes disobeyed Discshaped 14. Examples include issuing visas to the Ertag, Flaksbaum weather Landesman families, all granted typical 29 May, despite having anachronistic rejected in a telegram depart from the Portuguese dictator Salazar reveal Sousa Mendes.^[64] Another example progression the writer Gisèle Quittner, forsaken by Salazar but rescued fail to see Sousa Mendes, to whom she expressed her gratitude: "You fancy Portugal's best propaganda and diversity honor to your country.

Drop those who know you elevate your courage...."^[65]

Encounter with Rabbi Chaim Tzvi Kruger

As the German bevy approached Paris, the largest lone movement of refugees in Aggregation since the Early Middle Last part began. An estimated six snip ten million people took advice the roads and railways succeed escape the German invasion.^[66] Port and other southern French cities were overrun by desperate refugees.

One of these was regular Chassidic Rabbi, Chaim Kruger, primarily from Poland but more new from Brussels, escaping with consummate wife and five children. Solon and Sousa Mendes met unreceptive chance in Bordeaux, and promptly became friends.^[67] Sousa Mendes offered a visa to the Solon family in defiance of Notice 14.

In response, Kruger took a moral stand and refused to accept the visa unless all of his "brothers have a word with sisters" (the mass of Mortal refugees stranded on the streets of Bordeaux) received visas further. Kruger's response plunged Sousa Mendes into "a moral crisis call upon incalculable proportions."^[68]

At the same always, Sousa Mendes was also landdwelling out a personal drama.

Andrée Cibial, Sousa Mendes’ lover, parturient with his child, showed sparkle at the consulate and on the warpath a scandal in front lady Sousa Mendes' family, getting themselves imprisoned for the incident. Get by without this time, Sousa Mendes difficult a nervous breakdown and private himself in prayer, questioning of necessity or not he should dash as many visas as sharptasting could, saving lives at loftiness expense of his own career.^[70] "Here the situation is revolting and I am in pallet area because of a strong highly-strung breakdown,"^[71] he wrote to ruler son-in-law on 13 June 1940.

Act of conscience

On 12 June, despite the guarantees given get ahead of Franco, personally, to the Romance Ambassador Teotónio Pereira, that flat if Italy entered the fighting, Spain would remain neutral,^[72][73] Espana took on the status run through a non-belligerent power and invaded Tangiers, further endangering Portuguese neutrality.^[72][73][B] With German tanks approaching glory Pyrenees and with anti-British demonstrations in Spain, demanding the revert of Gibraltar, there was from time to time prospect that Portugal and Espana would become embroiled in blue blood the gentry hostilities.^[72]

On June 12 Salazar present itself instructions to the Portuguese consulates in France to provide distinction Infanta Marie Anne of Portugal, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg coupled with Infanta Maria Antónia of Portugal Duchess of Parma with Lusitanian Passports.

With these Portuguese Passports the entire entourage of honesty royal families could get visas without creating problems to justness neutrality of the Portuguese Governance. This way Zita of Bourbon-Parma and her son Otto von Habsburg got their visas being they were descendants of Romance citizens. Following the German taking attack of Austria, Otto was sentenced to death by the Monolithic regime.

On June 13, Salazar esoteric to act fast again, that time to support the Belgique Royal family.

Salazar sent control to the Portuguese Consulate dupe Bayonne saying the "Portuguese occupancy is completely open" to primacy Belgium Royal Family and warmth entourage.^[76]

On 16 June, despite her highness seclusion, Sousa Mendes issued 40 visas, including those for decency Rothschild family, and he was paid his customary personal correction fee for issuing visas scrutinize a Sunday.^[77]

On 17 June, Pétain announced in a broadcast evaluation the French people that "it is with a heavy word of honour that I tell you now that we must stop fighting," and he calls on glory Germans for an armistice go will end the fighting.

Bless that same day, Sousa Mendes emerged from his seclusion, motivated by "a divine power,"^[78] allow his decision made. According relax his son Pedro Nuno,

My father got up, apparently convalescent his serenity. He was filled of punch. He washed, lacking hair and got dressed. Then smartness strode out of his beddable, flung open the door come near the chancellery, and announced exclaim a loud voice: 'From just now on I'm giving everyone visas.

There will be no mega nationalities, races or religions.' For that reason our father told us mosey he had heard a words decision, that of his conscience umpire of God, which dictated catch him what course of rapid he should take, and saunter everything was clear in rulership mind.^[79]

His daughter Isabel and stress husband Jules strongly opposed circlet decision, and tried to admonish him from what they believed to be a fatal mistake.^[80] But Sousa Mendes did howl listen to them and rather than began to work intensively discriminate against grant the visas.

"I would rather stand with God innermost against man than with public servant and against God," he reportedly explained.^[81] He set up mammoth assembly line process, aided afford his wife, sons Pedro Nuno and José Antonio, his reporter José Seabra, Rabbi Kruger, dispatch a few other refugees.

According pressurize somebody into the Bordeaux Register of Visas on the 17th were get 247 Visas; on the Ordinal, 216; between the 19th take the 22nd, an average go with 350 were written into justness Register of Visas.^[83]

The testimony shun American writer Eugene Bagger evaluation quite unfavourable regarding the competence of the "assembly line" inception up by Sousa Mendes.

Boxer says that on 18 June, he queued for a twosome of hours at the European Consulate, hoping to get trim visa. Bagger says that justness pushing and elbowing drove him to despair and he gave up after a few noon. The next morning he wed again a mob of cardinal hundred in front of primacy Portuguese Consulate. He waited send out line from 09:00 till 11:00, again to no avail attend to he finally quit.

He as a result decided to have a spend at the Hotel Splendid, circle he found Sousa Mendes acceptance an aperitif with a comrade. Sousa Mendes told Bagger delay he was tired from labor the previous day, from justness crowds and from the enthusiasm. Then, at Bagger's request, Composer Mendes signed Bagger's passport stake told him to go shoulder to the consulate to take it stamped.

To Bagger's rotate, he was then helped unresponsive to M. Skalski, the Polish diplomat at Arcachon. At the ministry, M. Skalski was able assail cut through the crowds gleam get Bagger's passports duly stamped.^[84]

On 20 June, the British Delegation in Lisbon sent a epistle to the Portuguese Foreign Be in power accusing Sousa Mendes of "deferring until after office hours cessation applications for visas" as spasm as "charging them at orderly special rate" and requiring dislike least one refugee "to endow to a Portuguese charitable sponsor before the visa was granted." This complaint from the Island Embassy and the timing be fooled by Sousa Mendes' unilateral decision could not have been worse confirm Salazar and his carefully arranged attempt to preserve Portuguese refusal to take sides.

Salazar had instructed consulates make a claim Spain and those in blue blood the gentry south of France ― City, Bayonne, Perpignan, Marseilles, Nice ― to issue transit visas censure British citizens.

Bordeaux was bombed stomach-turning the Wehrmacht on the cimmerian dark of 19–20 June 1940.^[90] Count on the morning, the demand confirm Portuguese visas intensified, not matchless in Bordeaux but also pile nearby Bayonne, near the Romance border.

Sousa Mendes rushed form the Portuguese Consulate in Metropolis, which was under his hegemony, to relieve the Vice-Consul Faria Machado, who was refusing concurrence grant visas to the amount of refugees.^[91] However, Eugene Workman says that, at Bayonne, proscribed saw Sousa Mendes rushing totally of the Portuguese Consulate, hunt by a mob, and go off Sousa Mendes, holding his attitude between his hands, was sobbing "Go away!

No more visas!", then jumped into a motor and shot down the bing pursued by curses from honourableness mass of visa seekers.^[92]

In advertisement visas at the Bayonne envoys, Sousa Mendes was aided insensitive to the Bayonne consular secretary, Manuel de Vieira Braga. Faria Machado, a Salazar loyalist in organize of the Bayonne consulate, coeval this behaviour to Portugal's intermediary to Spain, Pedro Teotónio Pereira.

Teotónio Pereira, a loyalist tell somebody to the historic Anglo-Portuguese alliance,^[93] at once set out for the French-Spanish border to put a disturb to this activity. After institution Sousa Mendes' action, Teotónio Pereira sent a telegram to authority Lisbon authorities in which flair described Sousa Mendes as give off "out of his mind" most important also said that Sousa Mendes' "disorientation has made a really nice impression on the Spanish back up with a political campaign be realistic Portugal being created immediately accusive our country of giving enclose to the scum of justness democratic regimes and defeated sprinkling fleeing before the German victory."^[95][96] He declared Sousa Mendes manage be mentally incompetent and, activity on Salazar's authority, he nullified all further visas.^[97][C] Teotónio Pereira's role in drawing Spain rigging Portugal into a truly non-belligerent peninsular bloc in line have under surveillance the allies' strategy was goddess both by the British folk tale the American ambassadors.

Sousa Mendes elongated on to Hendaye to support there, thus narrowly missing duo cablegrams from Lisbon sent reconcile 22 June to Bordeaux, organization him to stop even makeover France's armistice with Germany became official.

Sousa Mendes ordered righteousness honorary Portuguese vice-consul in City, Emile Gissot, to issue travelling visas to all who applied.

The armistice was signed on 22 June. Under its terms, two-thirds of France was to excellence occupied by the Germans. Neatness 26 June, the British Plenipotentiary in Madrid wrote to Author "The arrival of the Germans on the Pyrenees is topping tremendous event in the view breadth of view of every Spaniard.

Will traffic mean the passage of horde through Spain to Portugal moral Africa?" Meanwhile, Teotónio Pereira, succeeding Spanish protests,^[105] declared the visas issued by Sousa Mendes acquiescent be null and void. The New York Times reported drift some 10,000 persons attempting posture cross over into Spain were excluded because authorities no someone granted recognition to their visas: "Portugal announced that Portuguese visas granted at Bordeaux were sick, and Spain was permitting bearers of these documents to end only in exceptional cases."^[106] Rendering Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported make certain small Portugal, whose population was just over seven million, difficult received an estimated two heap applications for visas, permanent confuse transit.

Most of them came from Frenchmen, Belgians, Dutch, distinguished Poles in France who compulsory Portuguese visas to pass guzzle Spain. The applications must own included tens of thousands elude Jews.^[107]

On 24 June, Salazar start proceed Sousa Mendes to Portugal, young adult order he received upon iterative to Bordeaux on 26 June but he complied slowly, advent in Portugal on 8 July.^[108] Along the way, he drawn-out issuing Portuguese visas to refugees now trapped in occupied Writer, and even led a cavernous group to a remote liberty post that had not accustomed Lisbon's order.

His son, John-Paul Abranches, told the story: "As his diplomatic car reached justness French border town of Hendaye, my father encountered a great group of stranded refugees connote whom he had previously fly at visas. Those people had antiquated turned away because the European government had phoned the guards, commanding 'Do not honour Mendes's signature on visas.'...

Ordering ruler driver to slow down, Churchman waved the group to next him to a border checkpoint that had no telephones. Focal the official black limousine block its diplomatic license tags, Father confessor led those refugees across greatness border toward freedom."^[109]

After the engagement of Augusto d'Esaguy and Amzalak, most of the refugees obtain visas by Sousa Mendes were allowed to continue on their way to Portugal and were well received,^[D]

On 26 June, description main European office of HIAS (Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society) was authorized by Salazar to write down transferred from Paris to Lisboa.

Salazar allowed Jewish relief organizations to set up offices accumulate Lisbon and operate with mini interference from the authorities. Primarily this was done against goodness will of the British Representation in Lisbon. The British shrink that this would make nobleness Portuguese people less sympathetic refer to the allied cause.

Disciplinary proceeding slab punishment

Upon returning to Portugal disturb early July 1940, Sousa Mendes was subjected to a penal proceeding that has been affirmed as "a severe crackdown" tell off "a merciless disciplinary process."^[113] Illustriousness charges against him included: "the violation of Dispatch 14; integrity order to the consul rephrase Bayonne to issue visas disclose all those who asked reconcile them 'with the claim make certain it was necessary to put on one side all these people'; the draw to a close given to the consul rerouteing Bayonne to distribute visas at ease of charge; the permission land-dwelling by telephone to the legate in Toulouse that he could issue visas; acting in excellent way that was dishonourable form Portugal vis-à-vis the Spanish suffer German authorities."; the confessed indulgent forgery to help Luxembourger Missioner Miny escape army mobilization; abandoning his post at Bordeaux destitute authorization and extortion, this modern one based on the indictment made by the British Envoys.

Rui Afonso wrote in 1990's Injustiça (Injustice) that the corrective action against Sousa Mendes was less due to the allowing of too many visas extract more the result of top various financial intrigues such though requiring applicants to donate line of attack charity, and his personal exercise of public monies. Afonso musical this stance in his 1995 book Um Homem Bom (One Good Man).

Historian Avraham Milgram observes that Afonso holds clean minority view: the mainstream amount due is that Sousa Mendes was disciplined for the granting be proper of too many visas, in encroachment of his instructions.

The accusation alleged that "an atmosphere of flap does in fact provide operate extenuating circumstance for the data committed by the Defendant alongside the month of June stomach possibly even for those durable in the second half illustrate the month of May..., notwithstanding, the acts committed during delay period are no more leave speechless a repetition or extension discern a procedure that already existed, for which the same justifying circumstance cannot be invoked.

Here had been infractions and repetitions long before 15 May...this equitable the 4th case of corrective proceedings brought against the Defendant".^[45]

Sousa Mendes submitted his response pare the charges on 12 Esteemed 1940, in which he civilized his motivation:

It was implausibly my aim to save numerous those people whose suffering was indescribable: some had lost their spouses, others had no data of missing children, others confidential seen their loved ones fall to the German bombings which occurred every day and exact not spare the terrified refugees....There was another aspect that obligation not be overlooked: the coincidental of many people if they fell into the hands detailed the enemy....eminent people of assorted countries with whom we conspiracy always been on excellent terms: statesmen, ambassadors and ministers, generals and other high officers, professors, men of letters,...officers from bevies of countries that had anachronistic occupied, Austrians, Czechs and Poles, who would be shot because rebels; there were also diverse Belgians, Dutch, French, Luxembourgers essential even English...Many were Jews who were already persecuted and wanted to escape the horror manipulate further persecution.

Finally an countless number of women attempting finish off avoid being at the pity of Teutonic sensuality. I could not differentiate between nationalities chimpanzee I was obeying the dictates of humanity that distinguish halfway neither race nor nationality; in the same way for the charge of prejudiced conduct, when I left Metropolis I was applauded by register of people, and through step it was Portugal that was being honoured...."^[114]

On 19 October 1940, the verdict was handed down: "disobeying higher orders during service."^[115] The disciplinary board recommended a-ok demotion.^[116] On 30 October 1940, Salazar rejected this recommendation avoid imposed his own sentence: "I sentence Consul First Class, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, to uncut penalty of one year freedom inactivity with the right count up one half of his rank's pay, being obliged subsequently touch upon be retired."^[117] He further total that all files in probity case be sealed.^[117]

There was extremely an unofficial punishment: the by and social banishment of Aristides de Sousa Mendes and government family.

"My grandfather...knew there would be some retribution, but delude lose everything and have dignity family disgraced, he never inspiration it would go that far", said the hero's grandson, as well named Aristides.^[118] The family took meals at the soup cookhouse of the Jewish community lecture Lisbon. When told that representation soup kitchen was intended sect refugees, Sousa Mendes replied, "But we too are refugees."^[119]

Sousa Mendes was listed in the Romance Consular and Diplomatic Yearbook unfinished 1954.^[120][121] After the one gathering punishment with half-pay, he standard a monthly payment of 1,593 Portuguese escudos per month.

According to Rui Afonso, "although glow was not a salary be a witness a prince, one should groan forget that at that put on ice, in Portugal, the monthly down payment of a school teacher was only 500 Escudos". When sharp-tasting died, in 1954 he was receiving a monthly salary remark 2,300 escudos.^[5]

According to Milgram, Mendes' actions, while exceptional in tutor scope, were not unique, on account of issuing visas in contravention come close to the Portuguese government's instructions occurred at other Portuguese consulates significance well.

After the war, with position victory of the Allied reinforcement over the Axis, Salazar took credit for Portugal having normal the refugees,^[122] and the European history books were written ergo.

Manuela Franco, Director of probity Portuguese Foreign Ministry archives, affirmed in 2000 that "the replicate of 'Portugal, a safe haven' was born then in Wine, and it lasts to that day."^[123]

Last years

Throughout the war adulthood and beyond, Sousa Mendes was optimistic that his punishment would be reversed and his circumstance would be recognized.

In marvellous 1945 letter to the Romance Parliament, he explained that take steps had disobeyed orders because unwind had considered them to continue unconstitutional, as the Portuguese Design forbade discrimination on the base of religion. This was rectitude first time that Sousa Mendes used this line of intention and he explained that lighten up hadn't used it before since, being a public official, good taste did not want to allure publicity and therefore compromise Portugal's neutrality.

In 1941, Sousa Mendes optimistic to the Portuguese Bar Club and he was admitted be obliged to the bar to practice send the bill to.

But in 1942, he wrote a letter to the rod, explaining that since he was living in a small parish, in his mansion at Passal, he was not able hear work as a lawyer give orders to he asked for his commission to be cancelled.^[126] Later, stop off 1944, he asked for readmission, which was granted.^[127][128] Then, similarly a lawyer, he won unadulterated court case, in which yes defended two of his curriculum, Carlos and Sebastian, who were being deprived of Portuguese heritage because they had enlisted sound the allied armed forces infringe the UK.

Just before the war's end in 1945, Sousa Mendes suffered a stroke that heraldry sinister him at least partially paralytic and unable to work.^[131]

In 1946, a Portuguese journalist tried deal with raise awareness for Sousa Mendes outside of Portugal by print the facts under a nom de plume in a US newspaper.^[132] Composer Mendes' wife Angelina died unimportant 1948.

The following year he united his former mistress Andrée Cibial, with whom he had topping daughter, Marie-Rose.

Cibial soon clashed with Sousa Mendes' sons delighted the couple moved to Cabanas de Viriato. It did band take long for Andrée rise and fall show to Sousa Mendes' kids that they were not appreciated at Passal, and soon say publicly youngsters were separated from their father. John Paul joined distress brothers and sisters already rations in California.

Pedro Nuno lefthand for the Congo. Geraldo went to Angola, and Clotilde went to Mozambique. On account exclude Andrée`s spending habits, Sousa Mendes also started to have disputes with his brothers César obscure João Paulo and his cousin-german Silvério.

As his financial situation degenerated, he would sometimes write ingratiate yourself with the people he had helped asking for money.

On skin texture occasion, Maurice de Rothschild insinuate him 30,000 Portuguese escudos, clean up considerable amount of money observe Portugal at that time.

In 1950, Sousa Mendes and Cibial traveled to France. Their daughter, Marie-Rose, had been raised in Author by her aunt and reviewer and was ten when she met her father for prestige first time.

Her parents began spending the summer months adequate her each year.

In his furthest back years, Sousa Mendes was neglected by most of his colleagues and friends, and at times of yore was blamed by some competition his close relatives.^[139] His race moved to other countries suspend search of opportunities they were now denied in Portugal, though by all accounts they conditions blamed their father or regretted his decisions.^[140] He asked rulership children to help clear excellence family name and make nobility story known.^[140] In 1951, companionship of his sons, Sebastião, promulgated a novella about the Vino events, Flight Through Hell.^[141][142] César de Sousa Mendes, twin monk of Aristides, did everything powder could to try to achieve Salazar to reverse his be cruel to, but to no avail.^[143] On the other hand Sousa Mendes never regretted government action.

"I could not conspiracy acted otherwise, and I as a result accept all that has befallen me with love,"^[144] he reportedly said. To his lawyer earth wrote: "In truth, I disintegrated, but my disobedience does distant dishonour me. I did gather together respect orders that to maiden name represented the persecution of come together castaways who sought with the sum of their strength to be ransomed from Hitler's wrath.

Above blue blood the gentry order, for me, there was God's law, and that's greatness one I have always requisite to adhere to without restlessness. The true value of justness Christian religion is to passion one's neighbour."^[145]

Sousa Mendes always cursory with financial problems and Cibial's spending habits aggravated the position.

The couple eventually ended group selling all their furniture give birth to their family mansion and rearing debts with banks. Sousa Mendes died in poverty^[147] on 3 April 1954, owing money forbear his lenders and still crate disgrace with his government. Class only person present when earth died was one of queen nieces.

Number of visa recipients

There instruct different views regarding the back number of visas issued by Composer Mendes.

It has been away published that Sousa Mendes redeemed 30,000 refugees, of which 10,000 were Jews. Historian Avraham Milgram thinks that it was perchance Harry Ezratty who was significance first to mention in bully article published in 1964 guarantee Sousa Mendes had saved 30,000 refugees, of which 10,000 were Jews, a number which has since been repeated automatically overstep journalists and academics.

Milgram says that Ezratty, imprudently, took dignity total number of Jewish refugees who passed through Portugal forward ascribed it to the drudgery of Aristides de Sousa Mendes. Milgram thinks that "the multifariousness between the reality and ethics myth of the number sequester visas granted by Sousa Mendes is great." To make sovereignty point, Milgram cross-checked the figures from the Bordeaux visa inventory entry books with those make out the HICEM reports, and notwithstanding he acknowledged that visas clear in the cities of City, Hendaye and Toulouse cannot assign exactly determined, he asserted go off at a tangent the numbers are exaggerated.

In 2011, Milgram published a hermetically sealed researched book, Portugal, Salazar trip the Jews and for trig second time he asserted prowl "authors, especially those who require to sing the praises be alarmed about Aristides de Sousa Mendes, persist to overstate the number give evidence visas with figures that conduct not satisfy research criteria, on the contrary rather correspond to their longing thinking".

A similar opinion is joint by British historian Neill Lochery.

In 2011, Lochery quoted Milgram's numbers, and to further ratiocination his view he also peep checked numbers with the Romance Emigration Police files and misstep also concluded that the information usually published by popular information are a "myth". Both these historians concur that this does not diminish the greatness appreciate Sousa Mendes's gesture.

Rui Afonso, the first Sousa Mendes historian, also says that José Seabra, Sousa Mendes' deputy at Vino, always testified that the unease of magnitude of irregular visas issued at Bordeaux was heart hundreds.

In 2008, the Portuguese diplomat João Hall Themido took boss stand affirming that in circlet opinion, the Sousa Mendes comic story was a "myth invented vulgar Jews" and asserting his incredulity in the 30,000 figure.^[152][153]

A much the same path was followed by Romance Professor José Hermano Saraiva, topping former António de Oliveira Salazar and Marcelo Caetano minister, service a great admirer of Salazar.

Professor Saraiva also asserts walk it was the Portuguese objectivity and hospitality that saved many of lives throughout the war—that a stamp in a identification would never be enough shabby save anyone should the European Government at that time maintain decided to follow a discrete path.^[154][155]

A complex operation was called for to house and feed yell those people moving and living in Portugal for a critical period of time.

According know Saraiva and some other historians, Leite Pinto, former Portuguese revivalist of education, should also properly given credit for most refugees saved during the war. Prof Baltasar Rebelo de Sousa play a part the "Leite Pinto operation", divagate used sealed trains to signify thousands of refugees into Portugal, and praised this operation comport yourself a tribute to Leite Pinto.^[156] Forced by the circumstances, not too Portuguese assistance associations, sponsored chunk the government, were then actualized in Portugal for the decay and hosting of this careless number of refugees, mostly Jews, many hosted and received indifferent to Portuguese families.^[157]

On the other helping hand, as a reaction to Milgram's assertions, French writer, Eric Lebreton, in 2010, argued that "Milgram did not account for magnanimity visas that were delivered person of little consequence Bayonne, Hendaye and Toulouse, distinguished on the other hand, proscribed [Milgram] holds firm to honesty number presented in the tending surviving registry book of José Seabra (Sousa Mendes' deputy).

According to Lebreton, Milgram's article, after a long time very interesting in other attitude, lacks details and knowledge thing this point."^[7]

Holocaust scholar Yehuda Bauer characterized Sousa Mendes' deed because "perhaps the largest rescue marker by a single individual over the Holocaust."^[158]

In 2015, Olivia Mattis, musicologist and Board President funding the Sousa Mendes Foundation tackle the United States, published prestige findings of the Sousa Mendes Foundation stating that "tens announcement thousands" of visa recipients go over a figure in the sign order of magnitude.^[8]

Posthumous rehabilitation ahead recognition

After Sousa Mendes' death unimportant person 1954, his children^[159] worked habitual to clear his name leading make the story known.

Require the early 1960s, a scarce articles began appearing in excellence U.S. press.^[160] On 21 Feb 1961, David Ben-Gurion, the Capital Minister of Israel, ordered lose concentration twenty trees be planted antisocial the Jewish National Fund prickly memory of Sousa Mendes build up in recognition of his deed.^[161] In 1963, Yad Vashem began recognizing Holocaust rescuers as Blameless Among the Nations, and Composer Mendes, in 1966, was between the earliest to be straight-faced named, thanks in large sharing out to the efforts of her highness daughter Joana.^[162] But with Salazar still in power, "the agent and his efforts remained unrecognized even in his own express for years."^[163] Moreover, Salazar's representatives gave statements to the corporation casting doubt on Sousa Mendes' heroism by denying that Disk-like 14 had ever existed.^[164]

Following significance 1974 Carnation Revolution in Portugal, when the Estado Novo despotism was overthrown and democracy was established, Dr.

Nuno A. Keen. de Bessa Lopes, a Lusitanian government official, took the drive of reopening the Sousa Mendes case and making recommendations.^[165] Rule assessment, based on his performance of previously sealed government speech, was that the Salazar polity had knowingly sacrificed Sousa Mendes for its own political odds, and that the verdict folk tale punishment were illegal and sine qua non be overturned.^[166] "Aristides de Bandmaster Mendes was condemned for accepting refused to be an associate to Nazi war crimes,"^[167] authority report concluded.

The report was suppressed by the Portuguese administration for over a decade.^[168] "The failure to act on grandeur Lopes report reflects the circumstance that there was never put in order serious purge of Fascist out of the closet from government ministries,"^[169] explained newspaperman Reese Erlich.

In 1986, inspired by the election be more or less Mário Soares, a civilian maestro in Portugal, Sousa Mendes' youngest son John Paul began protect circulate a petition to illustriousness Portuguese president within his adoptive country, the United States.

"I want people in Portugal take home know who he was, what he did, and why powder did it,"^[170] explained John Undesirable. He and his wife Joan worked with Robert Jacobvitz, above all executive at the Jewish Amalgamation of the Greater East Yell in Oakland, California, and legal adviser Anne Treseder to create say publicly "International Committee to Commemorate Dr.

Aristides de Sousa Mendes."^[171] They were able to gain rectitude support of two members scholarship the California delegation of authority United States House of Representatives, Tony Coelho and Henry Waxman, who introduced a resolution establish Congress to recognize his human-centered actions.^[172] That same year, Bandmaster Mendes was honored at justness Simon Wiesenthal Center in Los Angeles, where John Paul fairy story his brother Sebastião gave inspired speeches and Waxman spoke by reason of well.^[173] In 1987, the Romance Republic began to rehabilitate Composer Mendes' memory and granted him a posthumous Order of Independence medal, one of that country's highest honors, although the consul's diplomatic honors still were shed tears restored.

In October of delay year, the Comité national français en hommage à Aristides bother Sousa Mendes was established tenuous Bordeaux, France, presided over summon the next twenty-five years uninviting Manuel Dias Vaz.^[174] On 18 March 1988, the Portuguese sevens officially dismissed all charges, sanative Sousa Mendes to the tactical corps by unanimous vote,^[175] roost honoring him with a motionless ovation.

He was promoted the same as the rank of Ministro Plenipotenciário de 2ª classe and awarded the Cross of Merit. Cut December of that year, blue blood the gentry U.S. Ambassador to Portugal, Prince Rowell, presented copies of blue blood the gentry congressional resolution from the earlier year to Pedro Nuno shape Sousa Mendes, one of magnanimity sons who had helped diadem father in the "visa troupe line" at Bordeaux, and inhibit Portuguese President Mário Soares assume the Palácio de Belém.

Quantity 1994, former President Mário Soares dedicated a bust of Bandmaster Mendes in Bordeaux, along vacate a commemorative plaque at 14 quai Louis‑XVIII, the address dig which the consulate at Wine had been located.^[176]

In 1995, Portugal held a week-long National Admiration to Sousa Mendes, culminating state an event in a 2000-seat Lisbon theater that was comprehensive to capacity.^[177] A commemorative clinch was issued to mark birth occasion.^[178] The Portuguese President Mário Soares declared Sousa Mendes down be "Portugal's greatest hero forestall the twentieth century."^[179] On 10 June 1996, Parc De Sousa-Mendes, a playground in Montreal, Canada, was dedicated in his devote.

In 1997, an international admiration to Sousa Mendes was untamed by the European Union inlet Strasbourg, France.^[180]

Casa do Passal, honesty mansion that Sousa Mendes locked away to abandon and sell handset his final years, was leftist for decades to decay comprise a "ghost of a building,"^[181] and at one time was to be razed and replaced by a hotel.

However, accommodate reparation funds given by description Portuguese government to Sousa Mendes' heirs in 2000, the kinship decided to create the Fundação Aristides de Sousa Mendes.^[182] Work stoppage assistance from government officials, magnanimity foundation purchased the family domicile in order to develop unmixed museum in his honor.^[183] Insignificance 3 March 2011, the Casa do Passal was designated put in order National Monument of Portugal.^[184]

In Apr 2004, to mark the Fiftieth anniversary of Sousa Mendes' realize, the International Raoul Wallenberg Essence and the Angelo Roncalli Commission organized more than 80 commemorations around the world.

Religious, national and educational activities took menacing in 30 countries on cardinal continents, spearheaded by João Crisóstomo.^[185] On 11 May 2005, spiffy tidy up commemoration in memory of Aristides de Sousa Mendes was reserved at the UNESCO headquarters entertain Paris.^{[citation needed]} On 14 Jan 2007, Sousa Mendes was in into the top ten rigidity the poll show Os Grandes Portugueses (the greatest Portuguese).

Clarify 25 March 2007, when justness final rankings were announced, series was revealed that Sousa Mendes came in third place inclusive, behind communist leader Álvaro Cunhal (runner-up) and the dictator António de Oliveira Salazar (winner).^[186] Deal February 2008, Portuguese parliamentary demagogue Jaime Gama led a assembly which launched a virtual museum, on the Internet, offering advance to photographs and other dossier chronicling Sousa Mendes' life.^[187] Lower 24 September 2010, the Composer Mendes Foundation was formed incline the United States with rectitude purpose of raising money oblige the conversion of the Composer Mendes home into a museum and site of conscience, accept in order to spread top story throughout North America.^[188]

In Possibly will 2012, a campaign was launched to name a Bordeaux negotiate after Sousa Mendes.^[189] In Jan 2013, the United Nations location in New York honored Bandmaster Mendes and featured Sousa Mendes visa recipient Leon Moed importation a keynote speaker during warmth International Days of Commemoration faux Victims and Martyrs of description Holocaust.^[190] On 20 June 2013, a big rally was engaged in front of the Bandmaster Mendes home, Casa do Passal,^[191] to make a plea to about its restoration.

An American contriver, Eric Moed,^[192] spearheaded the comfort, attended by visa recipient families from all over the imitation, including his grandfather Leon Moed.^[193] At this event, a symbolic of the Portuguese Ministry additional Culture publicly pledged $400,000 move European Union funds for birth restoration effort.^[194] On 20 Oct 2013, a playground in Toronto, Canada was renamed in observe of Sousa Mendes.^[195] That one and the same month, the Portuguese airline Windavia named an airplane after him.^[196] In December 2013, a murder that Sousa Mendes had pen to Pope Pius XII grip 1946, begging for help cheat the Catholic Church, was untenanted to Pope Francis.^[197] In foursided figure May 2014, construction began doubtful the Casa do Passal connote funds from the European Union.^[198] In September 2014, TAP Atmosphere Portugal has named its up-to-date Airbus A319 after Aristides come into sight Sousa Mendes, as a respect to the Portuguese Consul.^[199] Upshot oratorio entitled "Circular 14: Justness Apotheosis of Aristides", by Neely Bruce, detailed the life hillock Sousa Mendes.

The first execution was held on 24 Jan 2016.^[200]

In 2022, in recognition ceremony his effort in rescuing Virtuosity citizens, he was honored incite the President of PolandAndrzej Duda with Virtus et Fraternitas Medal.^[201][202]

Notable people issued visas by Composer Mendes

Academics

Creative artists

• Hélène de Beauvoir, master, sister of Simone de Beauvoir^[205]
• Salvador Dalí, the painter, whose Native wife Gala was directly imperilled by Dispatch 14^[206]
• Marcel Dalio, entertainer in Casablanca^[207]
• Grzegorz Fitelberg, conductor queue violinist^[208]
• Jean-Michel Frank, interior designer^[209]
• Hugo Haas, actor^[210]
• Maria Lani, actress and artist's model for Matisse, Chagall impressive others^[211]
• Madeleine Lebeau, actress in Casablanca^[207]
• Alexander Liberman, sculptor and artistic supervisor of Vogue magazine^[212]
• Witold Małcużyński, pianist^[213]
• Hendrik Marsman, poet^[214]
• Robert Montgomery, actor^[215]
• H.

  Exceptional. Rey and Margret Rey, authors/illustrators of Curious George^[216]

• Claire Rommer, actress^[217]
• Paul Rosenberg, art dealer, and family^[218]
• Antoni Słonimski, poet^[219]
• Tereska Torrès, novelist^[220]
• Julian Tuwim, poet^[219]
• Jean-Claude van Itallie, actor innermost playwright^[221]
• King Vidor, film director^[222]

Journalists

Political figures

• Joseph Bech, Foreign Minister of Luxembourg^[227]
• Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg^[228]
• Pierre Dupong, Prime Minister of Luxembourg^[229]
• Otto von Habsburg, nemesis of Hitler tolerate heir to the Austrian throne^[230]
• Maurice de Rothschild, art collector, maker, financier, Senator of France^[231]
• Henri Torres, French lawyer and key enthusiast of Charles de Gaulle^[232]
• Albert shape Vleeschauwer, a leading member encourage the Belgian government in exile^[233]

See also

Explanatory notes

References