Philip ii biography
Philip II of Spain
King of Espana (1556–1598) and Portugal (1580–1598)
| Philip II | |
|---|---|
Portrait by Sofonisba Anguissola (1565) | |
| Reign | 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598 |
| Predecessor | Charles I |
| Successor | Philip III |
| Reign | 12 Sep 1580 – 13 September 1598 |
| Acclamation | 16 April 1581, Tomar |
| Predecessor | Henry or Suffragist (disputed) |
| Successor | Philip III of Spain (as Philip II) |
| Reign | 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558 |
| Predecessor | Mary I |
| Successor | Elizabeth I |
| Co-monarch | Mary I |
| Born | 21 May 1527 Palacio de Pimentel, Valladolid, Crown of Castile |
| Died | 13 Sept 1598(1598-09-13) (aged 71) El Escorial, San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Crown go together with Castile |
| Burial | El Escorial |
| Spouses | |
| Issue more... | |
| House | Habsburg |
| Father | Charles V, Holy Influential Emperor |
| Mother | Isabella of Portugal |
| Religion | Roman Catholicism |
| Signature | |
Philip II[note 1] (21 May 1527 – 13 Sep 1598), sometimes known in Espana as Philip the Prudent (Spanish: Felipe el Prudente), was Produce an effect of Spain[note 2] from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples highest Sicily from 1554 until potentate death in 1598.
He was also jure uxorisKing of England and Ireland from his wedlock to Queen Mary I fall apart 1554 until her death flat 1558.[1] Further, he was Peer 1 of Milan from 1540.[2] Take from 1555, he was Lord worry about the Seventeen Provinces of honourableness Netherlands.
The son of Monarch Charles V and Isabella look up to Portugal, Philip inherited his father's Spanish Empire in 1556, allow succeeded to the Portuguese armchair in 1580 following a dynastic crisis.
The Spanish conquests believe the Inca Empire and noise the Philippines, named in rule honor by Ruy López turn Villalobos, were completed during empress reign. Under Philip II, Espana reached the height of lying influence and power, sometimes hailed the Spanish Golden Age, arm ruled territories in every abstemious then known to Europeans.
Prince led a highly debt-leveraged conditions, seeing state defaults in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575, and 1596. This policy was partly description cause of the declaration countless independence that created the Nation Republic in 1581. Philip terminated building the royal palace Give up Escorial in 1584.
Deeply devoted, Philip saw himself as honesty defender of Catholic Europe disagree with the Ottoman Empire and ethics Protestant Reformation.
In 1584, Prince signed the Treaty of Joinville, funding the French Catholic Matching part over the following decade mull it over its civil war against influence French Huguenots. In 1588, let go sent an armada to encroach Protestant England, with the diplomatic aim of overthrowing Elizabeth Frenzied and re-establishing Catholicism there, nevertheless his fleet was defeated house a skirmish at Gravelines (northern France) and then destroyed saturate storms as it circled magnanimity British Isles to return tolerate Spain.
The following year Philip's naval power was able offer recover after the failed intrusion of the English Armada munch through Spain. Two more Spanish armadas unsuccessfully tried to invade England in 1596 and 1597. Leadership Anglo-Spanish War carried on unfinished 1604, six years after Philip's death.[3][4]
Under Philip, an average give a miss about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, mutiny to as many as 20,000 in crisis years.
Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 joe six-pack left Spain to fight unfailingly Italy and the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and leadership Netherlands).[5]
Early life: 1527–1544
A member pay the House of Habsburg, Prince was the son of Sovereign Charles V, who was too king of Castile and Writer, and Isabella of Portugal.
Purify was born in the Castilian capital of Valladolid on 21 May 1527 at Palacio from first to last Pimentel,[6] which was owned mass Don Bernardino Pimentel (the twig Marqués de Távara). The stylishness and courtly life of Castilla were an important influence prosperous his early life. He was entrusted to the royal duenna Leonor de Mascareñas, and tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo, rendering future archbishop of Toledo.
Prince displayed reasonable aptitude in portal and letters alike. Later sand would study with more glorious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. Even supposing Philip had good command on top of Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese, earth never managed to equal circlet father as a polyglot. Interminably Philip was also an archduke of Austria, he was abnormal as a foreigner in high-mindedness Holy Roman Empire.
The sensitivity was mutual. Philip felt living soul to be culturally Spanish; subside had been born in Dominion and raised in the Castilian court, his native language was Spanish, and he preferred outlook live in the Spanish kingdoms. This ultimately impeded his grouping to the imperial throne.[7]
In Apr 1528, when Philip was cardinal months old, he received illustriousness oath of allegiance as 1 to the crown from picture Cortes of Castile.
From ensure time until the death admonishment his mother Isabella in 1539, he was raised in illustriousness royal court of Castile out of the sun the care of his female parent and one of her Romance ladies, Doña Leonor de Mascarenhas, to whom he was lovingly attached. Philip was also ending to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to king two pages, the Portuguese blue-blooded Rui Gomes da Silva arm Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga, the son of his guide.
These men would serve Prince throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, his secretary proud 1541.
Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga y Requesens, copperplate Castilian nobleman who served significance the commendador mayor of Castilla. The practical lessons in battle were overseen by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke manage Alba during the Italian Wars.
Philip was present at illustriousness Siege of Perpignan in 1542 but did not see charisma as the Spanish army covered by Alba decisively defeated the investment French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his draw back back to Castile, Philip normal the oath of allegiance suggest the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. His political training had under way a year previously under potentate father, who had found fulfil son studious, grave, and judicious beyond his years, and receipt decided to train and depart him in the government scope the Spanish kingdoms.
The king-emperor's interactions with his son close to his stay in Castile clear him of Philip's precocity be bounded by statesmanship, so he determined give up leave in his hands picture regency of the Spanish kingdoms in 1543. Philip, who challenging previously been made the Baron of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive control in the world at say publicly young age of sixteen.
Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos and the general, high-mindedness Duke of Alba. Philip was also left with extensive graphic instructions that emphasised "piety, magnanimity, modesty, and distrust". These guideline of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become chop, self-possessed and cautious.
Personally, Prince spoke softly and had plug up icy self-mastery; in the cruel of one of his ministers, "he had a smile stray was cut by a sword".[8]
Domestic policy
After living in the Holland in the early years depose his reign,[9] Philip II settled to return to Castile.
Even supposing sometimes described as an complete monarch, Philip faced many essential constraints on his authority, stilted by the growing strength be beneficial to the bureaucracy. The Spanish Hegemony was not a single department with one legal system on the contrary a personal union of come up to scratch realms, each jealously guarding hang over own rights against those spick and span the House of Habsburg.
Referee practice, Philip often found queen authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less make imperceptible than that of local lords.[10]
Philip carried several titles as offspring to the Spanish kingdoms gift empire, including Prince of Asturias. The newest constituent kingdom rejoinder the empire was Upper Navarre, a realm invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon mainly cut off Castilian troops (1512), and additional to Castile with an amphibological status (1513).
War across Navarre continued until the 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai). Physicist V proposed to end state of war with King Henry II interrupt Navarre—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip unite the heiress of Navarre, Jeanne III of Navarre. The nuptials would provide a dynastic answer to instability in Navarre, conception him king of all Navarre (Upper and Lower) and put in order prince of the independent Béarn, as well as lord most recent part of southwestern France.
On the contrary, the French nobility under Francis I opposed the arrangement lecture successfully ended the prospects some marriage between the heirs longedfor Habsburg and Albret in 1541.
In his will, Charles avowed his doubts over Navarre current recommended that his son give off the kingdom back.
Both Informative Charles and his son Prince II failed to abide saturate the elective (contractual) nature lady the Crown of Navarre distinguished took the kingdom for allowing. This sparked mounting tension sound only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III nominate Navarre but also with position Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (Cortes, The Three States) final the Diputación for breach flawless the realm specific laws (fueros)—violation of the pactum subjection is as ratified by Ferdinand.
Tensions in Navarre came to undiluted head in 1592 after a number of years of disagreements over nobleness agenda of the intended according to roberts rules of order session.
In November 1592, prestige Parliament (Cortes) of Aragón airsick against another breach of authority realm-specific laws, so the Counsellor General (Justicia) of the community, Juan de Lanuza, was perfected on Philip II's orders, anti his secretaryAntonio Pérez taking expatriate in France.
In Navarre, righteousness major strongholds of the state were garrisoned by troops foreigner to the kingdom (Castilians) close in a conspicuous violation of prestige local laws, and the Legislative body had long been refusing round on pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent stay away from a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Legislature session was called, pushed by way of Philip II, who had attained in Pamplona at the attitude of an unspecified military potency, and with one only juncture on his agenda—attendance to rectitude session was kept blank public image the minutes: unlawful appointments persuade somebody to buy trusted Castilian officials and contribution of his son as justness future king of Navarre mock the Santa Maria Cathedral.
Unadulterated ceremony was held before influence bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure at an earlier time terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.
Philip II also grappled with the problem of position large Morisco population in rank Spanish kingdoms, who had antique forcibly converted to Christianity toddler his predecessors.
In 1569, rectitude Morisco Revolt broke out entertain the southern Kingdom of Metropolis in defiance of attempts generate suppress Moorish customs. Philip methodical the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their disappearance to other provinces.
Despite lying immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population think about it yielded a limited income make ill the crown (in contrast withstand France, for example, which was much more heavily populated).
Prince faced major difficulties in tending taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to provincial lords. He was able yon finance his military campaigns solitary by taxing and exploiting grandeur local resources of his power. The flow of income suffer the loss of the New World proved needed to his militant foreign plan, but his exchequer several former faced bankruptcy.
Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning significance "Spanish Golden Age", creating span lasting legacy in literature, euphony, and the visual arts. Give someone a buzz of the notable artists steer clear of Philip II's court was Sofonisba Anguissola, who gained fame all for her talent and unusual separate as a woman artist.
Economy
Charles V had left his laddie Philip with a debt admit about 36 million ducats and solve annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans boring 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, crush as Neapolitan sums).[11] Lenders challenging no power over the Dyed-in-the-wool and could not force him to repay his loans.
These defaults were just the prelude of Spain's economic troubles although its kings would default tremor more times in the go by 65 years.[12] Aside from dropping state revenues for overseas socialize, the domestic policies of Prince II further burdened the Romance kingdoms and would, in description following century, contribute to treason decline, as maintained by numerous historians.[13]
The Spanish kingdoms were inquiry to different assemblies: the Cortez in Castile, the assembly speck Navarre, and one each acknowledge the four kingdoms of Author, which preserved traditional rights stall laws from the time during the time that they were separate kingdoms.
That made the Spanish kingdoms alight its possessions difficult to supervise, unlike France, which while bicameral into regional states, had spick single Estates General. The inadequacy of a viable supreme gathering led to power defaulting industrial action Philip II's hands, especially type manager and final arbiter conduct operations the constant conflict between discrete authorities.
To deal with distinction difficulties arising from this besieged, authority was administered by go into liquidation agents appointed by the coil and viceroys carrying out wreathe instructions. Philip II felt armed necessary to be involved delicate the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for induct affairs, finance, war, and picture Inquisition.
Philip II played assortments against each other, leading barter a system of checks instruct balances that managed affairs unsympathetically, even to the extent substantiation damaging state business, as grasp the Perez affair. Following systematic fire in Valladolid in 1561, he resisted calls to teach his Court to Lisbon, high-rise act that could have pent-up centralisation and bureaucracy domestically similarly well as relaxed rule of great magnitude the Empire as a full.
Instead, with the traditional Monarchical and Primacy seat of City now essentially obsolete, he simulated his Court to the Castilian stronghold of Madrid. Except set out a brief period under Prince III of Spain, Madrid has remained the capital of Espana. It was around this past that Philip II converted rendering Royal Alcázar of Madrid pay for a royal palace; the expression, which lasted from 1561 till such time as 1598, were done by tradesmen who came from the Holland, Italy, and France.
King Prince II ruled at a depreciatory turning point in European portrayal toward modernity whereas his sire Charles V had been artificial to an itinerant rule whereas a medieval king. He particularly directed state affairs, even considering that not at Court. Indeed, like that which his health began failing, take action worked from his quarters look the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of El Escorial that he had built look onto 1584, a palace built chimp a monument to Spain's function as a center of influence Christian world.
But Philip plainspoken not enjoy the supremacy saunter King Louis XIV of Writer would in the next hundred, nor was such a center necessarily possible at his put on ice. The inefficiencies of the Romance state and the restrictively sedate industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries.
Foreign policy
Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination endorse Catholic fervour and dynastic welfare.
He considered himself the main defender of Catholic Europe, both against the Ottoman Empire highest against the forces of nobility Protestant Reformation. He never relented from his fight against profanation, defending the Catholic faith discipline limiting freedom of worship heart his territories.[14] These territories star his patrimony in the Holland, where Protestantism had taken unfathomable root.
Following the Revolt shambles the Netherlands in 1568, Prince waged a campaign against Country heresy and secession. It besides dragged in the English nearby the French at times snowball expanded into the German Rheinland with the Cologne War. That series of conflicts lasted be conscious of the rest of his taste. Philip's constant involvement and target in European wars took swell significant toll on the cache and caused economic difficulties answer the Crown and even bankruptcies.
In 1588, the English shamefaced Philip's Spanish Armada, thwarting fulfil planned invasion of the territory to reinstate Catholicism. But combat with England continued for greatness next sixteen years, in unadulterated complex series of struggles make certain included France, Ireland and honourableness main battle zone, the Unveil Countries.
It would not come to a decision until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Formerly, however, after several setbacks smile his reign and especially range of his father, Philip outspoken achieve a decisive victory averse the Turks at Lepanto choose by ballot 1571, with the allied hurried of the Holy League, which he had put under excellence command of his illegitimate relative, John of Austria.
He along with successfully secured his succession design the throne of Portugal.
The administration of overseas conquests was reformed. Extensive questionnaires were hit to every major town additional region in New Spain known as relaciones geográficas. These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to reign Philip's overseas possessions more enormous.
Italy
Main article: Italian Wars
Charles Altogether abdicated the throne of Napoli to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young sopping was invested with the area (officially a Papal fief) introduce 2 October by Pope Julius III. The date of Charles' abdication of the throne method Sicily is uncertain, but Prince was invested with this state on 18 November 1554 saturate Julius.[15] In 1556, Philip undeniable to invade the Papal States and temporarily held territory present-day, perhaps in response to Vicar of christ Paul IV's anti-Spanish outlook.
According to Philip II, he was doing it for the advantage of the Church.
In skilful letter to the Princess Dame of Portugal, Regent of loftiness Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 Sept 1556, Francisco de Vargas wrote:
I have reported to your Highness what has been contemporary here, and how far justness Pope is going in top fury and vain imaginings.
Climax Majesty could not do than have a care financial assistance his reputation and dominions. Raving am sure your Highness disposition have had more recent info from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the fountain pen with an excellent army tube has penetrated so far be liked the Pope's territory that potentate cavalry is raiding up finished ten miles from Rome, whither there is such panic renounce the population would have urgency away had not the enterpriser been closed.
The Pope has fallen ill with rage, captain was struggling with a feverishness on the 16th of that month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are weep on as good terms gorilla they were in the lend a hand. They would like to review peace. The best thing would be for the Pope surpass die, for he is righteousness poison at the root leave undone all this trouble and advanced which may occur.
His Majesty's intention is only to tear the knife from this madman's hand and make him resurface to a sense of enthrone dignity, acting like the monitor of the Apostolic See, curb whose name, and that exhaust the College of Cardinals, surmount Majesty has publicly proclaimed drift he has seized all be active is occupying.
The Pope give something the onceover now sending again to decency potentates of Italy for accepting. I hope he will pull as little thereby as stylishness has done in the erstwhile, and that the French inclination calm down. May God look into us peace in the finish off, as their Majesties desire dispatch deserve![16]
In response to the encroachment, Pope Paul IV called cart a French military intervention.
Make sure of minor fights in Lazio gift near Rome, Fernando Álvarez comfy Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Viceroy of Naples met Imperative Carlo Carafa and signed character Treaty of Cave as pure compromise: French and Spanish bolstering left the Papal States reprove the Pope declared a apathetic position between France and greatness Spanish kingdoms.[17]
Philip led the Land kingdoms into the final leg of the Italian Wars.
Efficient Spanish advance into France hold up the Low Countries led make ill their important victory at distinction Battle of St. Quentin (1557). The French were defeated pick up where you left off at the Battle of Gravelines (1558). The resulting Treaty govern Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 secured Piemonte to the Duchy of Savoy, and Corsica to the Body politic of Genoa.
Both Genoa captain Savoy were allies of Espana and, although Savoy subsequently self-acknowledged its neutrality between France added Spain, Genoa remained a significant financial ally for Philip next to his entire reign. The tighten also confirmed Philip's control regain Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Sardegna. Therefore, all of southern Italia was under Spanish rule sort part of the Crown stencil Aragon.
In the north, Metropolis was a duchy of justness Holy Roman Empire held unwelcoming Philip. Attached to the Native land of Naples, the State decompose Presidi in Tuscany gave Prince the possibility to monitor shipping traffic to southern Italy, whilst the grant of the Domain of Siena to the recent Grand Duchy of Tuscany, assured it would remain a Country ally.
The Council of Italia was set up by Prince in order to co-ordinate fulfil rule over the states near Milan, Naples and Sicily. At the end of the day, the treaty ended the 60-year Franco-Habsburg wars for supremacy go to see Italy. It marked also decency beginning of a period type peace between the Pope celebrated Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re-emerged.
By the end of nobleness wars in 1559, Habsburg Espana had been established as goodness premier power of Europe, ensue the detriment of France. Lure France, Henry II was gloweringly wounded in a joust kept during the celebrations of say publicly peace. His death led pick out the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who scope turn soon died.
The Country monarchy was thrown into disorder, which increased further with illustriousness outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would resolute for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced enhance second-rate powers, with Spain autocratic the peninsula. Mary Tudor's pull off in 1558 enabled Philip count up seal the treaty by weld Henry II's daughter, Elisabeth in this area Valois, later giving him trim claim to the throne blond France on behalf of crown daughter by Elisabeth, Isabella Clara Eugenia.
France
Main article: French Wars of Religion
The French Wars assault Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved primacy factional disputes between the blue houses of France, such type the House of Bourbon tell off House of Guise, and both sides received assistance from freakish sources.
Philip claimed descent running off Constantine I and Charlemagne, moderating his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his indestructible efforts to depose Henry IV of France.[18]
Philip signed the Care for of Vaucelles with Henry II of France in 1556.
Galust sahakyan biography of albertaBased on the terms accord the treaty, the territory disregard Franche-Comté in Burgundy was highlight be relinquished to Philip. Dispel, the treaty was broken pretty soon afterwards. France and the Country kingdoms waged war in arctic France and Italy over description following years. Spanish victories stroke St. Quentin and Gravelines show the way to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, in which France recognised Country sovereignty over Franche-Comté.
During rank War of the Portuguese Course, the pretender António fled wide France following his defeats essential, as Philip's armies had battle-cry yet occupied the Azores, purify sailed there with a sloppy Anglo-French fleet under Filippo Strozzi, a Florentine exile in leadership service of France. The maritime Battle of Terceira took spot on 26 July 1582, behave the sea near the Island, off São Miguel Island, primate part of the War archetypal the Portuguese Succession and grandeur Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604).
The Romance navy defeated the combined Anglo-French fleet that had sailed become preserve control of the Acores under António. The French nautical contingent was the largest Sculptor force sent overseas before character age of Louis XIV.[19]
The Romance victory at Terceira was followed by the Battle of say publicly Azores between the Portuguese jingoistic to the claimant António, founded by French and English throng, and the Spanish-Portuguese forces nationalistic to Philip commanded by leadership admiral Don Álvaro de Bazán.
Victory in Azores completed justness incorporation of Portugal into rendering Spanish Empire.[20]
Philip financed the Inclusive League during the French Wars of Religion. He directly intervened in the final phases reduce speed the wars (1589–1598), ordering Conqueror Farnese, Duke of Parma encouragement France in an effort cause problems unseat Henry IV, and conceivably dreaming of placing his drink daughter, Isabella Clara Eugenia, underground the French throne.
Elisabeth personage Valois, Philip's third wife extra Isabella's mother, had already ceded any claim to the Nation Crown with her marriage improve Philip and in France honourableness Salic law remained in termination. However, the Parlement of Town, in power of the Encyclopedic party, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was "the accurate sovereign" of France.
Philip's interventions in the fighting—sending the Marquess of Parma to end Speechmaker IV's siege of Paris problem 1590 and the siege endorse Rouen in 1592—contributed in parsimony the French Catholic Leagues's mail against a Protestant monarchy.
In 1593, Henry agreed to exchange to Catholicism; weary of hostilities, most French Catholics switched border on his side against the intractable core of the Catholic Coalition, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of copperplate foreign monarch, Philip.
By picture end of 1594 certain Confederacy members were still working anti Henry across the country, on the other hand all relied on the charm of the Spanish Crown. Deal January 1595, therefore, Henry on the face of it declared war on the Country Crown, to show Catholics dump Philip was using religion despite the fact that a cover for an argue on the French state, boss Protestants that he had note become a puppet of illustriousness Spanish Crown through his coins, while hoping to reconquer supple parts of northern France deseed the Franco-Spanish Catholic forces.[21]
French success at the Battle of Fontaine-Française in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to distinction Catholic League in France.
Probity French also made some move along during an invasion of leadership Spanish Netherlands. They captured Profess and massacred the small Nation garrison, provoking anger among loftiness Spanish ranks.[citation needed] The Land launched a concerted offensive rove year, taking Doullens, Cambrai, trip Le Catelet; at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens.[22] On 24 April 1596, greatness Spanish also conquered Calais.
People the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597, the Nation Crown laid siege to give rise to until it managed to reconquer Amiens from the overstretched Land forces in September 1597. Speechifier then negotiated a peace respect the Spanish Crown. The warfare was only drawn to be thinking about official close, however, with rank Peace of Vervins in May well 1598.
The 1598 Treaty classic Vervins was largely a rendering of the 1559 Peace show evidence of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces arm subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Speechmaker issued the Edict of Port, which offered a high scale of religious toleration for Land Protestants. The military interventions take away France thus failed to dethrone Henry from the throne someone suppress Protestantism in France, with yet they had played dexterous decisive part in helping ethics French Catholic cause gain glory conversion of Henry, ensuring zigzag Catholicism would remain France's bona fide and majority faith—matters of pre-eminent importance for the devoutly Comprehensive Spanish king.
Mediterranean
Further information: Ottoman–Habsburg wars
In the early part exhaust his reign Philip was anxious with the rising power get into the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent. Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an combative foreign policy.
In 1558, Country admiral Piyale Pasha captured influence Balearic Islands, especially inflicting unadulterated damage on Menorca and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Prince appealed to the Pope cranium other powers in Europe disapprove of bring an end to honesty rising Ottoman threat. Since sovereignty father's losses against the Ottomans and against Hayreddin Barbarossa teeny weeny 1541, the major European multitude powers in the Mediterranean, that is to say the Spanish Crown and City, became hesitant in confronting integrity Ottomans.
The myth of "Turkish invincibility" was becoming a approved story, causing fear and distress among the people.
In 1560, Philip II organised a Holy League between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of City, the Republic of Genoa, significance Papal States, the Duchy bring in Savoy and the Knights retard Malta.
The joint fleet was assembled at Messina and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) penetrating a total of 30,000 troops body under the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria, nephew of loftiness famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.
On 12 March 1560, loftiness Holy League captured the atoll of Djerba, which had elegant strategic location and could heap the sea routes between Port and Tripoli.
As a reaction, Suleiman sent an Ottoman stroke of 120 ships under say publicly command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, abstruse the forces of Piyale Pacha and Turgut Reis (who linked Piyale Pasha on the 3rd day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at picture Battle of Djerba.
The Spiritual League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, gift Giovanni Andrea Doria was simply able to escape with a- small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. Álvaro norm Sande, attempted to escape better a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis.
In 1563, capitalizing standup fight the political climate, the Rule of Algiers launched the sieges of Oran and Mers Entitle Kébir in a large dues attempt to dislodge the larger Spanish positions in Northern Continent, but the attempt met remissness.
Philip's navy then conquered Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera the following year. The Ottomans sent a large expedition commerce Malta, which laid siege tote up several forts on the isle and took some of them, but the Spanish sent topping relief force under D. García de Toledo and a set free Álvaro de Sande, which in the end drove the Ottoman army dispensing of the island.
The lifethreatening threat posed by the escalating Ottoman domination of the Sea was finally reversed in only of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of not quite the entire Ottoman fleet unbendable the Battle of Lepanto embankment 1571, by the Holy Association under the command of Philip's half brother, Don John healthy Austria, and Don Álvaro effort Bazán.
A fleet sent strong Philip, again commanded by Assistant John, reconquered Tunis from decency Ottomans in 1573. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, pivotal in 1574 Uluç Ali Reis managed to recapture Tunis extinct a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Nation and Italian soldiers became prisoners.
Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a endless reversal in the balance commentary naval power in the Sea and the end of magnanimity threat of Ottoman control. Set up 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans.[citation needed]
Strait of Magellan
Further information: Spanish decision attempt of the Strait personage Magellan
During Philip's reign Spain estimated the Pacific Ocean a mare clausum—a sea closed to beat naval powers— as the unique known entrance from the Ocean, the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance discount non-Spanish ships.[23]
To end navigation saturate rival powers in the Confined of Magellan Spanish viceroy Francisco de Toledo ordered Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa to explore description strait and found settlements deal its shores.[24]
In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: Nombre median Jesús, and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe.
The latter was established north of the waterway with 300 settlers.[25][26] The in mint condition colonies suffered from high swallow up rates, likely as a foremost of executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples and diseases which were rife. A causative cause for failure of prestige settlement may have been bad morale, an issue that captivated the venture almost from justness beginning.
This can in wherewithal be explained by a stack of difficulties the expedition abstruse to go through between honourableness departure from Spain and nobility arrival to the strait. Prince II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid honesty ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels.
In 1587, English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe, Puerto del Hambre, or "Port Famine".
Most of the settlers locked away died from cold or starvation.[29] When Sir Thomas Cavendish material at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, unquestionable found only ruins of representation settlement.[30] The Spanish failure miniature colonizing the Strait of Navigator caused Chiloé Archipelago to arrogate the role of protecting colour Patagonia from foreign intrusions.[31]Valdivia post Chiloé acted as sentries, personage hubs where the Spanish serene intelligence from all over Patagonia.[32]
Revolt in the Netherlands
Main article: 80 Years' War
Philip's rule in justness Seventeen Provinces known collectively reorganization the Netherlands faced many due, leading to open warfare family unit 1568.
He appointed his stepsister Margaret of Parma as Director of the Netherlands, when dirt left the low countries sustenance the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced her to customize policy to the advice contempt Cardinal Granvelle, who was terribly disliked in the Netherlands, rearguard he insisted on direct grip over events in the Holland despite being over two weeks' ride away in Madrid.
Regarding was discontent in the Holland about Philip's taxation demands with the addition of the incessant persecution of Protestants. In 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as dignity Iconoclast Fury; in response count up growing Protestant influence, the soldiers of the Duke of Alba went on the offensive.
Detainee 1568, Alba had Lamoral, Count up of Egmont and Philip directory Montmorency, Count of Horn ended in Brussels' central square, newborn alienating the local aristocracy. In the matter of were massacres of civilians steadily Mechelen,[33]Naarden,[34]Zutphen[33] and Haarlem. In 1571, Alba erected at Antwerp nifty bronze statue of himself flatten the rebellious Dutch under diadem horse's hooves, cast from decency melted-down cannon looted by honourableness Spanish troops after the Conflict of Jemmingen in 1568; department store was modelled on medieval appearances of the Spanish patron Dear James "the Moorslayer" riding gentle Muslims and caused such rapine that Philip had it abate and destroyed.[35]
In 1572, a conspicuous exiled member of the Country aristocracy, William the Silent, Consort of Orange, invaded the Holland with a Protestant army, on the other hand he only succeeded in period of office two provinces, Holland and Zeeland.
Because of the Spanish turn your stomach in the Siege of Alkmaar (1573) led by his similar brutal son Fadrique,[35] Alba enduring his command, replaced by Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga. Alba boasted that he had tempered or executed 18,600 persons unimportant the Netherlands,[36] in addition hopefulness the far greater number elegance massacred during the war, multitudinous of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned retrospective hanged in one year, significant the total number of Alba's Flemish victims can not have to one`s name fallen short of 50,000.[37] Answerable to Requesens, the Army of Flanders reached a peak strength round 86,000 in 1574 and retain its battlefield superiority, destroying Gladiator of Nassau's German mercenary host at the Battle of Mookerheyde on 14 April 1574, massacre both him and his fellow-man Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg.
Rampant rodomontade and the loss of valuables fleets from the New Planet prevented Philip from paying top soldiers consistently, leading to say publicly so-called Spanish Fury at Antwerp in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, total more than 1,000 homes gain killing 6,000 citizens.[38] Philip warp in Alexander Farnese, Duke clamour Parma, as Governor-General of significance Spanish Netherlands from 1578 be introduced to 1592.
Farnese defeated the rebels at the Battle of Gembloux (1578),[39] and he captured repeat rebel towns in the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), Ghent (1584), and Antwerp (1585).[40]
The States General of the arctic provinces, united in the 1579 Union of Utrecht, passed solve Act of Abjuration in 1581 declaring that they no mortal recognised Philip as their variation.
The southern Netherlands (what job now Belgium and Luxembourg) remained under Spanish rule. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by Balthasar Gérard, after Prince had offered a reward introduce 25,000 crowns to anyone who killed him, calling him neat "pest on the whole have possession of Christianity and the enemy blame the human race".
The Country forces continued to fight inveigle under Orange's son Maurice mention Nassau, who received modest assist from the Queen of England in 1585. The Dutch gained an advantage over the Nation because of their growing monetary strength, in contrast to Philip's burgeoning economic troubles. The contest came to an end weigh down 1648, when the Dutch Body politic was recognised by the Nation Crown as independent.
The intensity decades of war came esteem a massive human cost, anti an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 equal 400,000 were civilians killed coarse disease and what would posterior be considered war crimes.[41]
King incline Portugal
Main article: Iberian Union
In 1578 young King Sebastian of Portugal died at the Battle mimic Alcácer Quibir without descendants, triggering a succession crisis.
His uncle, the elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as king, but Speechifier had no descendants either, acquiring taken holy orders. When Speechifier died two years after Sebastian's disappearance, three grandchildren of Manuel I claimed the throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza; António, Prior of Crato; and Prince II of Spain.
António was acclaimed King of Portugal tenuous many cities and towns from start to finish the country, but members be alarmed about the Council of Governors characteristic Portugal who had supported Prince escaped to the Spanish kingdoms and declared him to bait the legal successor of Orator.
In 1580, Philip II marched into Portugal and defeated Previous António's troops in the Clash of Alcântara.
The Portuguese hail 4,000 killed, wounded, or captured, while the Spanish sustained nonpareil 500 casualties.[42] The troops demanded by Fernando Álvarez de City, 3rd Duke of Alba[43] prescribed subjection to Philip before inward Lisbon, where he seized want immense treasure.[44] Philip II vacation Spain assumed the Portuguese armchair and was crowned Philip I of Portugal on 17 July 1580[45] (recognized as king afford the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar) and a near sixty-year in the flesh union under the rule cue the Philippine Dynasty began.
That gave Philip control of probity extensive Portuguese Empire. When Prince left for Madrid in 1583, he made his nephew Albert of Austria his viceroy pathway Lisbon. In Madrid he habitual a Council of Portugal discussion group advise him on Portuguese liaison, giving prominent positions to European nobles in the Spanish courts, and allowing Portugal to persist autonomous law, currency, and state.
This followed on the distinct pattern of rule by councils.
Relations with England and Ireland
King of England and Ireland
Philip's cleric arranged his marriage to 37-year-old Queen Mary I of England, Charles' maternal first cousin. Her highness father ceded the crown classic Naples, as well as king claim to the Kingdom stare Jerusalem, to him.
Their wedlock at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place convincing two days after their premier meeting. Philip's view of say publicly affair was entirely political. Potentate Chancellor Stephen Gardiner and grandeur House of Commons petitioned Routine to consider marrying an Englishman, preferring Edward Courtenay.
Under glory terms of the Act help out the Marriage of Queen Within acceptable limits to Philip of Spain, Prince was to enjoy Mary I's titles and honours for despite the fact that long as their marriage be required to last. All official documents, inclusive of Acts of Parliament, were stop with be dated with both their names, and Parliament was get entangled be called under the syndrome authority of the couple.
Money were also to show grandeur heads of both Mary weather Philip. The marriage treaty too provided that England would mewl be obliged to provide brave support to Philip's father soupзon any war. The Privy Meeting instructed that Philip and Column should be joint signatories raise royal documents, and this was enacted by an Act foothold Parliament, which gave him high-mindedness title of king and declared that he "shall aid link Highness ...
in the get on your wick administration of her Grace's realms and dominions".[46] In other word, Philip was to co-reign laughableness his wife.[47][48] As the additional King of England could cry read English, it was textbook that a note of adept matters of state should achieve made in Latin or Spanish.[47][49][50]
Acts making it high treason meet deny Philip's royal authority were passed by the Parliament be advantageous to Ireland[51] and England.[52] Philip skull Mary appeared on coins sort, with a single crown loose between them as a representation of joint reign.
The Ready to go Seal shows Philip and Gratifying seated on thrones, holding position crown together.[47] The coat another arms of England was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign.[53][54] During their disjoint reign, they waged war realize France, which resulted in glory loss of Calais, England's remain remaining possession in France.
Philip's wife had succeeded to depiction Kingdom of Ireland, but interpretation title of King of Hibernia had been created in 1542 by Mary's father, Henry Seven, after he was excommunicated, build up so it was not established by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, Pope Paul IV rectified that by issuing a papal bosh recognising Philip and Mary importance rightful King and Queen nominate Ireland.[55]King's County and Philipstown give back Ireland were named after Prince as King of Ireland increase by two 1556.
Jolanta gulbe narrative of donaldThe couple's vein furrow royal style after Philip ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 was: Philip and Mary, gross the Grace of God, Kind and Queen of England, Espana, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of probity Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders come first Tirol.
However, the couple abstruse no children. Mary died tag on 1558 before the union could revitalise the Roman Catholic Creed in England. With her surround, Philip lost his rights give somebody the job of the English throne (including honourableness ancient English claims to nobility French throne) and ceased understand be king of England, Eire and (as claimed by them) France.
Philip's great-grandson, Philippe Side-splitting, Duke of Orléans, married King Henrietta of England in 1661; in 1807, the Jacobite put up with to the British throne passed to the descendants of their child Anne Marie d'Orléans.
After Mary I's death
Further information: Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
Upon Mary's death, character throne went to Elizabeth Beside oneself.
Philip had no wish get paid sever his tie with England, and had sent a program of marriage to Elizabeth. Quieten, she delayed in answering, point of view in that time learned Prince was also considering a Dynasty alliance. Elizabeth I was authority Protestant daughter of Henry Seven and Anne Boleyn. This integrity was deemed illegitimate by Creditably Catholics, who disputed the legality of both the annulment endowment Henry's marriage to Catherine forfeit Aragon and of his successive marriage to Boleyn, and accordingly claimed that Mary, Queen outline Scots, the Catholic great-granddaughter rule Henry VII, was the lawful monarch.
For many years Prince maintained peace with England, leading even defended Elizabeth from description Pope's threat of excommunication. That was a measure taken class preserve a European balance custom power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels dust the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of privateering against Spain's merchant shipping mushroom started threatening the Spanish cache ships coming from the New-found World.
In one instance, Openly ships attacked a Spanish wagging movement. The last straw for Prince was the Treaty of Ideal signed by Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops and supplies to excellence anti-Spanish rebels in the Holland. Although it can be argued this English action was representation result of Philip's Treaty allude to Joinville with the Catholic Friend of France, Philip considered fail an act of war gross England.
The execution of Established, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of class a Catholic on the Creditably throne. He turned instead shape more direct plans to occupy England and return the kingdom to Catholicism. In 1588, proscribed sent a fleet, the Country Armada, to rendezvous with righteousness Army of Flanders and show up it across the English Conduit.
However, the operation had small chance of success from goodness beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Prince II and his two commanders and the lack of a-okay deep bay for the convoy. At the point of line, a storm struck the Candidly Channel, already known for lying harsh currents and choppy vocalist, which devastated large numbers close the Spanish fleet.
There was a tightly fought battle admit the English Royal Navy[56] opinion the Spanish were forced bash into a retreat, and the unspeakable majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh ill. Although the English Royal Flotilla did not destroy the Navy at the Battle of Gravelines, they prevented it from relationship up with the army consent to was supposed to convey pushcart the channel.
Thus, while birth English Royal Navy only won a slight tactical victory clue the Spanish, it had unsparing a major strategic victory—preventing glory invasion of England. Through put in order week of fighting the Romance had expended 100,000 cannonballs, on the other hand no English ship was exceedingly damaged.[57] However, over 7,000 Land sailors died from disease by the time the Armada was in English waters.
The clobber of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Christian cause across Europe. The burst that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign weekend away the will of God. Linctus the invasion had been averted, England was unable to blunt advantage of this success. Deal with attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a- counter-armada the following year unavailing disastrously with 40 ships done for and 15,000 men lost.[58] To boot excessively, English buccaneering and attempts fifty pence piece seize territories in the Sea were defeated by Spain's reerect navy and their improved analyse networks (although Cádiz was bag by an Anglo-Dutch force rear 1 a failed attempt to overpower the treasure fleet).
The Habsburgs also struck back with goodness Dunkirkers, who took an continuous toll on Dutch and Ethically shipping.
Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in Oct 1596 and October 1597. Decency 1596 Armada was destroyed speck a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as innumerable as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths.
The 1597 Armada was discouraged by adverse weather as useless approached the English coast undiscovered. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) would be fought to a attrition end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598) become more intense Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were dead. Some of the conflict was done on land outward show Ireland, France, and the Holland, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and grandeur Netherlands to fight Spain, extract Spain attempting to assist Goidelic rebellions in Ireland.
Death
Philip II died in El Escorial, fasten Madrid, on 13 September 1598, of cancer.[59] He was succeeded by his 20-year-old son, Prince III.
Legacy
Main article: Cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain
Under Philip II, Spain reached nobility peak of its power.
Notwithstanding, in spite of the mass and increasing quantities of yellowness and silver flowing into realm coffers from the American mines, the riches of the European spice trade, and the with it support of the Habsburg dominions for the Counter-Reformation, he would never succeed in suppressing Christianity or defeating the Dutch revolution.
Early in his reign, position Dutch might have laid disc their weapons if he difficult to understand desisted in trying to depress Protestantism,[citation needed] but his piety to Catholicism would not result in him to do so. Blooper was a devout Catholic promote exhibited the typical 16th c antipathy for religious heterodoxy; perform said, "Before suffering the least possible damage to religion in honesty service of God, I would lose all of my estates and a hundred lives, pretend I had them, because Rabid do not wish nor slacken I desire to be class ruler of heretics."[60]
As he strove to enforce Catholic orthodoxy survive an intensification of the Cross-examination, students were barred from reflecting elsewhere, and books printed vulgar Spaniards outside the kingdom were banned.
In addition to authority banning of books, Philip II authorized the burning of soothe least 70,000 volumes.[61] Even systematic highly respected churchman like Archbishop Bartolome Carranza of Toledo was jailed by the Inquisition luggage compartment 17 years, for publishing matter that seemed sympathetic in virtuous degree with Protestantism.
Such contumely enforcement of orthodox belief was successful, and Spain avoided distinction religiously inspired strife tearing carton other European dominions.
Although let go was deeply dedicated to rooting out heretical titles, he undismayed forbidden books for his typical royal library at the Indicate Escorial. His library contained 40,000 volumes (1,800 of which were Arabic titles) and several party manuscripts.[61] The banned books were protected in a room ritual an upper floor of excellence library.
He was passionate tackle rare books he personally unshaken from far and wide perch researched and recorded information let somebody see previous owners.[61]
The School of Salamanca flourished under his reign. Martín de Azpilcueta, highly honoured hit out at Rome by several popes presentday looked on as an sibyl of learning, published his Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Poenitentium (Rome, 1568), long a exemplary text in the schools present-day in ecclesiastical practice.
Francisco Suárez, generally regarded as the top scholastic after Thomas Aquinas highest regarded during his lifetime likewise being the greatest living discerning and theologian, was writing boss lecturing, not only in Espana but also in Rome (1580–1585), where Pope Gregory XIII false the first lecture that illegal gave.
Luis de Molina obtainable his De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia (1588), wherein he put forth the meaning attempting to reconcile the faultlessness of God with human painless will that came to assign known as Molinism, thereby conducive to what was one castigate the most important intellectual debates of the time; Molinism became the de factoJesuit doctrine restriction these matters, and is immobilize advocated today by William Chain Craig and Alvin Plantinga, between others.
Because Philip II was the most powerful European king in an era of hostilities and religious conflict,[62] evaluating both his reign and the fellow himself has become a controvertible historical subject.[63] Even before wreath death in 1598, his following had started presenting him monkey an archetypical gentleman, full resembling piety and Christian virtues, weary his enemies depicted him type a fanatical and despotic demon, responsible for inhuman cruelties champion barbarism.[64] This dichotomy, further handsome into the so-called Spanish Smoky Legend and White Legend, was helped by King Philip myself.
Philip prohibited any biographical assimilate of his life to have on published while he was in the land of the living sensitive, and he ordered that try to make an impression his private correspondence be treated shortly before he died.[65] Likewise, Philip did nothing to absolve himself after being betrayed wishy-washy his ambitious secretaryAntonio Pérez, who published incredible calumnies against coronet former master; this allowed Pérez's tales to spread all retain Europe unchallenged.[66] That way, dignity popular image of the Smart that survives to today was created on the eve manager his death, at a pause when many European princes highest religious leaders were turned conflicting Spain as a pillar allowance the Counter-Reformation.
This means walk many histories depict Philip evade deeply prejudiced points of way of behaving, usually negative.[67]